TRUMAN DOMESTIC POLICY

COLD WAR

#1 - 1992

In 1945 Winston Churchill said that the United States stood at the summit of the world. Discuss the developments in the thirty years following Churchill's speech which called the global preeminence of the United States into question.

#2 - 1981

Why did United States foreign policy after the Second World War (1945-1960) take a different direction from that after the First World War (1918-1939)?
Give approximately equal attention to both periods.

#3 - 1996

Analyze the influence of TWO of the following on American-Soviet relations in the decade following the Second World War.

Yalta Conference

Communist revolution in China

Korean War

McCarthyism

#3 - 1984

"Harry S. Truman was a realistic, pragmatic President who skillfully led the American people against the menace posed by the Soviet Union."

Assess the validity of this generalization for President Truman's foreign policy from 1945-1953.

#4

Analyze the ways in which THREE of the following called into question United States preeminence as a global power.

The postwar reconstruction of Germany and Japan

Nuclear proliferation

The Vietnam War

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

#5 - 1997

How do you account for the appeal of McCarthyism in the United States in the era following the Second World War?

Intro

A. "Who the hell is Harry Truman?" (asked FDR's chief of staff in 1944)

Truman became President in 1945 when FDR died
a dedicated Democrat from Missouri, he was ill-prepared/informed, but learned fast
1. Son of a mule trader (born in 1884 in Lamar, Mo.)
2. Never went to college
3. Artillery captain in WWI
4. Failed clothing salesman
5. Entered politics ("party man"); elected to Senate in 1934
6. Headed "watchdog" committee on spending during WWII
7. Compromise v.p. candidate ("Second Mo. Compromise")

B. As President, evoked the memory of Andrew Jackson

wiry, likeable, short-tempered, head-strong, impulsive, and course
(one of his favorite names to call people was "son of a bitch")
First day - "Boys, if you ever pray, pray for me now"; later said,
"I felt like the moon, stars, and all the planets had fallen on me"
Always lived in the "shadow of FDR", but he grew into the job
("the buck stops here"), and is considered one of our good ones!

I. DEMOBILIZATION - planned on during the war

A. Military released 25,000 men/women / day

10 million within first year
by 1950 army down to 600,000 / $13 billion budget

B. Office of War Mobilization

1944 - Bernard Baruch and John M. Hancock were in charge of planning

C. G.I. BILL OF RIGHTS - Servicemen's Readjustment Act - 1944

1. Unemployment benefits - available for one year after war - $20/ Week
- a. pensions and hospital care
- b. mustering out pay
2. Low interest loans to start businesses, buy homes
3. Surplus property and equipment sold at low prices to GIs to start new businesses
4. Educational - vocational/college opportunities provided for 8 million

D. Employment Act of 1946

did not guarantee full employment but tried to provide it
- 1. created the Council of Economic Advisers - Economic Report
- 2. 80th Congress - undermined it

E. Other Aspects of Demobilization

1. Government machines removed by Dec. 1945 - 98% normal
2. Debts paid quickly - as during the 1920's
3. Taxes were reduced temporarily to aid the economy
4. Public works projects were created for the unemployed
5. Council of Economic Advisers was created to take care of any problems left by demobilization

F. Results:

1. Government planning prevented widespread unemployment and avoided depression
2. Greater economic equality than ever before - Soviets expected a collapse as did many Americans

II. Problems facing Truman in 1945

A. Inflation

1. People wanted an end to price and wage controls yet wanted inflation to stay under control
2. Truman wanted a gradual return to normal while Congress want the change to be faster
- they battled over OPA and price and wage controls allowing it to expire while they argued
- and inflation went wild - Truman was blamed - New controls were in place in 4 weeks
- a. 25% increase in 2 weeks
- b. shortages instead of surplus - meat shortages = "Horsemeat Harry"
- c. attempts to subsidize housing industry failed but shortages were short lived
3. high demand from overseas made things worse - protectionism
Inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation - fighting to prevent depression made problem worse

B. Labor Unions

1. 4.6 million go on strike for wage increases
- a. Truman worked out a compromise for the steel and auto industry
- b. Coal Strike - John L. Lewis
  - government took over the mines and gave the strikers what they wanted
- c. Injunctions were used and threats were made against other unions
  - RR Union - although wage increases were given
2. CIO rejected Truman and his supporters
3. Many government officials resigned or were fired

C. Truman lost support from liberals and conservatives

popularity dropped from 87 to 32%

III. Do-Nothing 80th Congress - Conservative - Reactionary

A. Republicans recaptured control of the Congress - 1946

1. lowered taxes for the wealthy - Truman wanted a balanced budget and vetoed
- many average taxpayers were angry at Congress for favoring wealthy
- moved back into the Democratic fold
2. veto override
3. Truman used 80 vetoes
4. Truman took the rest of the controls off giving Laissez-faire Republicans what they wanted
- resulted in higher inflation which
- was blamed on the Republicans

B. Truman Proposals that were blocked

1. Minimum wage and social security increases
2. Public Slum Clearance and housing improvements during shortage
3. Aid to Education (blocked - key issue Parochial Schools)
4. Medicare Insurance (blocked as first step towards socialized medicine)
5. Farm aid reform blocked
- prosperity continued after the war until 1949
- by 1952 the Korean war brought them back again

C. TAFT-HARTLEY ACT - 1947

1. Proposed by Robert Taft (R) Ohio
2. Vetoed by Truman and overridden by Congress
3. Provisions - reversed union gains from Wagner Act
- a. prohibited closed shop and the secondary boycott
- b. permitted management to seek injunctions to end strikes
  - and to sue union leaders for losses
- c. union campaign contributions prohibited
- d. Required a 60 day notice for strikes
- e. Presidential power to use a 80 day cooling off period
- f. After 80 days final offers are given to an Arbitrator who picks the best offer
- g. Allowed states to pass Right to Work Laws - people can't be required to join unions
- h. Labor has continued to gain until recently
- i. This resulted in many Republicans being voted out of office in the next election

D. Presidential Succession Act - 1947

1. Changed the order to prevent a non-elected official from becoming President
2. Pres./VP/Speaker of House/President Pro Tem/Secretary of State/etc.

E. CIVIL RIGHTS

Republicans sided with Southern Democrats to block reforms
1. Truman knew that the 3rd World was watching
2. Housing issue would help blacks
3. No aid to segregation
4. Appointed Civil Rights Commission 10/47 - 2/48 Truman called for a ten-point program
- a. Civil Rights Commission - permanent - the permanent commission was blocked
  - Truman implemented this through Executive Order - temporarily
- b. Federal Fair Employment Practices Act
- c. Legislation to protect the right to vote, do away with poll taxes, and prevent lynching
  - all blocked
5. Blacks given government positions - U.N. Ralph Bunche - Nobel Prize
6 Ordered no federal government discrimination
7. Desegregated the army
8. Result - Blacks supported Truman and Southern Democrats abandoned him
9. Supreme Court acted at the same time
- a. 1944 - political parties are not a club and therefore blacks can vote in a primary
- b. 1947 - segregation on interstate transport unconstitutional
- c. 1948 - real estate discrimination illegal
- d. 1950 - Sweatt v. Painter - segregated schools for graduate schools unconstitutional
- U. of Texas law school better than any black law school therefore not equal

F. 22ND AMENDMENT - proposed in 1948 ratified in 1951

Limited the President to two terms proposed by the Republicans to make sure
no Democratic FDR happened again

G. HOOVER COMMISSION - 1947

Its purpose was to streamline the ABC agencies left over from the Depression in order to save money, however very few jobs were eliminated
- a. Agencies were reduced from 65 to 23
- b. Proposed HEW - blocked by Southern Democrats

H. 1948 ELECTION - Domestic Issues were key

1. Truman (D) - Whistle-stop Campaign - "Dewey Defeats Truman"
- Democrats regained control of the Congress
- a. included a strong Civil Rights plank - supported by HHH
  - 1. guarantee vote
  - 2. equal opportunity to work
  - 3. personal security
- b. Called for the repeal of Taft-Hartley
2. Thomas E. Dewey (R) - identified with Do-Nothing Congress which failed to solve inflation
3. Strom Thurmond (States Rights Party) - S.C. - anti-Civil Rights
- Dixiecrats (conservative democrats)
4. Henry Wallace (Progressive Citizens of America) liberal Democrat fired by Truman
- a. felt that Truman's foreign policy was too anti-communist - might create war
- b. isolation could lead to military cuts - savings could be spent on 21 points

IV. Truman Fair Deal - 1949

mostly an extension of the New Deal (21 points)

A. Achievements

1. Social Security expanded to 10 million more people
2. Minimum wage raised 40 to 65 to 75 cents/hr.
3. National Housing Act - 1949 - 810,000 low cost homes
4. Slum clearance and rural housing funded
5. Protect national resources - land reclamation
6. New work projects added - Maximum Employment Act
7. Copy TVA public works for more electrical power
8. National Science Foundation nationally funded - created jobs
9. Immigration laws allowed more into US and were more fair
10. Farm supports were set at 90% of parity wanted to pay difference between market price and support price

B. Failures

attempts to break new ground blocked by Republicans and Southern Democrats
1. Taft-Hartley not repealed
2. Support for education blocked (private vs. parochial)
3. National Health Insurance blocked - AMA
4. Civil Rights Proposals were blocked
5. Fair Employment Practices Act was killed by Senate filibuster
- Anti-Poll Tax law defeated

C. The Record according to Democrats

1. Failure compared to FDR - prevented major erosion of FDR programs by Republicans
2. Success compared to his successor DD Eisenhower

TRUMAN COLD WAR

FOREIGN POLICY

I. Introduction

A. At end of WWII, Americans were looking to "returning to normalcy"

1. USSR ranked higher in popularity with American people than did GB!
2. However, it would not last long!
3. By 1946, we would be fighting the "Cold War"

B. Background

1. Did we learn any lessons from WWI? What were they?
- (No repeats of '30s...Munich, appeasement, failure of collective security)
2. What were the significant effects of WWII? What questions had to be answered?
- a. 50m dead, millions homeless and destitute (displaced persons)
- b. Cost over $3 trillion, including property loss
- c. Power vacuums in Europe and Asia

WHAT SHOULD OUR FOREIGN POLICY GOALS BE?

Students brainstorm based on Constitution
- national security
  - peace
  - Avoid Another World War
- create a favorable balance of trade
  - markets
  - raw materials
- spread capitalism
- spread national self-determination (democracy/liberty)
- spread our culture (religion etc.)
- humanitarianism/moralityaltruism
Other considerations?
- cost in terms of money and lives
- impact on our image at home and abroad
Our well-being linked to world events, depended on an activist foreign policy: "Globalism"
- Methods to achieve goals?
- 1) How to find "common ground"?
- 2) Should we seek "allies"? How should we support them?
- 3) Is intervention in other countries ever justified? When?
- 4) Is war justified? When? (If so, where would you "draw the line"?)
5. Lessons from the past
a. U.S. - lessons from WWI (disarm enemies, self-
determination, increase trade, collective security,
or, to correct those things that caused WWII)
b. USSR - keep it strong, Germany weak (fear of
"capitalist encirclement")
c. Wanted "satellites" - Poland - Rumania - Hungary -
Czechoslovakia - Soviet zone in Germany came
under Soviet influence eventually!
6. Soviets failed to honor their wartime commitments (the Yalta
agreement to allow self-determination for East Europe)
a. Lost 10% of its population during the war (US - .03%)
b. Wanted East Europe (buffer); to protect its frontiers by
extending USSR's boundaries!
7. On May 11, Truman cancelled lend-lease shipments to Russia
(ordered ships to turn around); Stalin had asked for $6b in goods
(would money be a tool?)
(We gave USSR $11b in lend-lease during the war,1/4 of total!)
8. May 12, 1945 - Winston Churchill sent message to Truman,
"What is to happen about Europe? An 'iron curtain' is drawn upon
the (Russian) front. We do not know what is going on behind it."
9. Truman asked Churchill to come to US to repeat the message: March, 1946 - "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the
Adriatic, an 'iron curtain' has descended across the continent." The Communists are seeking to take totalitarian control!
10. Bernard Baruch - "Let us not be deceived, today we are in the
midst of a 'cold war'" (Apr, 1947); speech written by Herbert
Bayard Swope; however, it had begun by early 1946!
11. At war's end, the Soviets had expanded across Eastern Europe,
into the Middle East, and downward from Asia!
Was this the beginning of the revolution?
12. What should the US do?
a. What weapons to use?
b. Where to "draw the line"?

II. Soviet - US Relations

A. 1917-1941 - unfriendly

1. Problems arose during WWI
2. US invaded the USSR in 1917 and was there till 1921 trying to destroy communism
(US and Allies sent troops to Russia following the Bolshevik Revolution under pretense of protecting supplies sent to Russia while it was an ally)
- a. Organized "White Army"
- b. Left in 1919, "Red Army" regrouped under Leon Trotsky, defeated the White Army!
- c. Lots of resentment!
3. Policy of "non-recognition"
- After we pulled out we refused to recognize them till 1933 tried to blockade them to death

WHY DO AMERICANS HATE COMMUNISM TODAY? CHECK WITH STUDENTS FIRST! Do they still have a feel for the Cold War today?

3. US reasons for dislike:
- a. Resented withdrawal from WWI
- b. Resented Nazi-Soviet Pact - 1939
- c. Soviets talked of world domination through violence - Red Scare
- d. Soviets were opposed to our capitalist system and our religion constantly critical of US
- e. Stalin's atrocities 1928-1953 at home

B. 1941-1945 - friendly

1. fighting a common enemy
- Totalitarianism of Germany and Japan
- worse than Soviet communism
2. Conferences to decide allied policy - FDR trusted Stalin
3. Propaganda at home portrayed Soviet people in a positive manner

C. Since 1945 - generally unfriendly Cold War

1. Even before WWII over, conflict of interests between US and USSR emerged
2. US would come to assume the leadership role in stopping Communist aggression
- a. Assumed a "bipolar" international system
- b. Irreconcilable ideologies
  - -democracy - wanting to spread our values to humankind
  - -communism - seemed to be committed to spreading revolution
- (had pledged a worldwide revolution)
- c. A history of mutual distrust
- d. Reconstruction of war-torn world led to competition between the two "superpowers"
  - (based on self-interests)
  - 1) Each sought leadership
  - 2) Each sought to increase "spheres of influence"
- e. No one wanted a cold war, but it happened
  - it would influence the world for the next 1/2 century!
3. struggle between "free world" led by US and communist world led by USSR for control of world direction
4. Stalin pursued a hard-line with the West after Potsdam - causes for this will never be clear
5. Americans were alarmed by Soviet attempts to communize the world and the spread of communism into Eastern Europe and Asia at the end of WWII
6. US became a leader in world affairs seeking to spread justice and democracy to the rest of the world
7. US wanted to avoid the mistakes of the past
- a. Isolation
- b. Appeasement
8. US developed a bipartisan approach - both parties working together to stop communism
9. Key issue trust USSR or oppose it
key area of challenge - Germany - Do they have the right of self-defense - NO! UNITED NATIONS

III. United Nations - Collective Security

BACKGROUND

Four Freedoms Speech - FDR - Speech, Religion, Want, Fear

FDR believed it necessary for U.S. to take a leadership role
(to be the force of "good" in the world, to lead by example)
in postwar collective security; believed it essential not to repeat the mistakes we made after WWI (Churchill - "We shall not make the same mistakes after this war, we'll make lots of new ones")

Atlantic Charter - 1941 - Collective Security established as a goal of WWII

CONFERENCES

A. DUNBARTON OAKS

1944 - Washington D.C.
US, USSR, China, G.B. drew up U.N.

B. YALTA - 1945 - voting for the Security Council approved

2 of 16 USSR Republics get votes in UN
Oct. 24 = UN Day

C. SAN FRANCISCO - 4-6/1945

FDR died Truman opens ceremony
Edward R. Stettinius signed for the US 6/26/45
US first to ratify (avoid WWI example)
- Oct 24, 1945 - Senate ratified it 89-2
- (it did allow for regional security agreements, like NATO)
- 80% of the Am. people approved our involvement! Isolation was DEAD!
50 nations completed the Charter and ratified it representing 75% of world's population
- 46 anti-Axis nations
HQ - New York City - 1952

PURPOSES

A. Save the world from the scourge of war

1. Peace and security through talking out problems
2. Collective action to remove threats and to stop aggression
3. Create friendly relations among countries

B. Promote social progress, a better standard of living and larger freedom

1. Promote human rights
2. Create international cooperation on worldwide issues
- a. economic standard of living
- b. social
- c. cultural
- d. humanitarian
- e. justice
3. respect human rights w/o regard to race, sex, language, or religion

ORGANIZATION - 6 Divisions

A. GENERAL ASSEMBLY (town meeting concept)

1. Membership -159 nations each with one vote
- a. First World - US and its Allies mostly industrialized
- b. Second World - USSR and its Allies many also developed
- c. Third World - 99/159 mostly developing nations - non-aligned
  - (60% Poverty)
  - agricultural
  - high illiteracy
2. Support from non-aligned nations
- a. Before 1960 overwhelmingly pro-US
- b. After 1960 turned increasingly against US
- c. 1984 (13% - US / 84% - USSR)
3. Powers
- a. discussion
- b. elect members
- c. amending the Charter requires a 2/3 vote
- d. influencing world opinion
4. Recent US Ambassadors
- a. Daniel Moynihan
- b. Jean Kirkpatrick
- c. Vernon Walters
- (current U.S. representative/ambassador - Madeleine Albright)

B. SECURITY COUNCIL

1. Membership - 15 members

a. Permanent members - five

1. US, USSR, Great Britain, France, China

(1971 change from Nationalist to Communist)

2. Each has VETO power (similar to Lodge's reservation about League)

b. Temporary members - ten - rotated every 2 yrs.

9/15 vote required for action if there is no veto

2. Powers

a. Investigation
b. Military or economic action

C. SECRETARIAT

1. Consists of the Secretary General and his staff (20,000)
2. Purpose - runs the day to day affairs of the UN
3. Former Secretary Generals
- a. Trygve Lie - Norway - 1948-1953
- b. Dag Hammerskjold - Sweden - 1953-1961 (died)
- c. U-Thant - Burma - 1961-1972
- d. Kurt Waldheim - Austria - 1972-1982
- e. Javier Perez de Cuellar - Peru - 1982-
- f. Butros Butros-Gali - Egypt
- g. Ghana - 1996

D. INTERNATIONAL COURT

1. Purpose - modeled after the World Court giving advisory opinions between disputing nations
2. No enforcement
- U.S. always went along with the courts decisions
- until Reagan (Nicaragua-mines)

E. TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

Purpose is to help colonies to gain their independence and to train them in self-rule

F. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL - 57 members

1. Purpose - Study world social, cultural, and health problems and make recommendations
2. Unicef - children
3. UNESCO - Educational, Scientific, and Social Council
- Purpose to promote understanding and cooperation
4. World Health Organization - tries to improve worldwide health conditions, eliminate diseases
- (Aids)
International Monetary Fund
the World Bank
the U.N. Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
- combine resources to provide food, clothing, shelter, medical and transportation needs to rebuild war-damaged nations

Spending and Receiving (1984)

a. US - 25% Africa - 31%
b. USSR - 12% Asia - 26%
c. Japan- 10% Mid.East- 12%
d. W.Ger- 9% Lat.Amer- 12%
e. Fr. - 7% Europe - 2%
f. Eng. - 5%
g. Italy- 4%
h. Canada- 3%

UN is under some criticism today

a. Expensive
b. Third World "bloc votes"
c. 166 wars, 20m killed since 1945
d. But, what would the world be like without it?

IV. Weapons of the Cold War

A. Propaganda - win the hearts and minds of the Third World

including UN

1. Which side has the best record of performance?
2. Which side has the best goals?

B. Diplomatic Moves - international conferences and military alliances

1. Which side seems most sincere and honest?
2. Which side is most concerned with the needs of the rest of the world? Least selfish?

C. Scientific competition - nuclear development, space race

1. Which side can provide the best future?
2. Which side would be the most dangerous to offend?

D. Economic Competition

1. Which country best provides for its own people?
2. Which country is most willing to share its wealth, through aid, with the rest of the world?

E. Espionage

1. Used to stay ahead of the other side
2. Used to embarrass the other side

F. Subversion - to weaken and overthrow governments that support the

other side

1. Has been used by both the US and the USSR in about equal numbers since WWII
2. Secrecy is important because this action makes you look bad
propaganda and espionage come into play

V. Background - Truman's Foreign Policy = Containment

A. Kennan's Containment Policy - 7/47 - Officially defined

1. Meet Soviet economic and political challenge - long term
2. Meet every crisis with military force
3. Stop the spread of communism

B. NATIONAL SECURITY ACT - 7/47

1. Created the Department of Defense (Army, Air Force, Navy)
+ Joint Chiefs of Staff
2. Created the CIA - intelligence
3. Created the National Security Council
- a. Pres.
- b. Cabinet
- c. Joint Chiefs of Staff
4. Purpose - to broaden the power of the US government to fight communism
5. NSC 68 - 1/30/50- full-scale buildup to stop the spread of communism
- spend as much as we can afford on defense
- if the Russians try and keep up they will go broke first
- 20% of GNP - kept secret
- recommended - Korean War made it a reality

C. Atomic Energy Act - 8/46

1. Atomic Energy Commission created to oversee fissionable material
2. after UN attempts at world regulation failed
3. US government had a monopoly our biggest advantage over communism at first
4. A-bomb - Soviets successfully test their own 9/49 ending US monopoly
- leading to a buildup of NATO
5. H-Bomb - 3/51 gave US the lead for a year till the USSR caught up again drunig Ike's 1st term
6. This marks the beginning of an expensive arms race

VI. Cold War Beginnings - Europe

A. Truman Doctrine - 3/12/47 - Truman announced Containment

1. George F. Kennan - developed a policy of preventing the spread of communism in Europe
- through confrontation - peace through strength - each action met with an equal reaction
- said that the Soviets would back down out of fear of war if confronted
"It must be the policy of the US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."
2. US gave aid to Greece and Turkey to prevent communist takeover
3. Soviets wanted control of the Dardanelles - they could have dominated Middle East oil
- Gave weapons and sent troops to practice war games
- US sent in the navy to threaten war - Dean Acheson (49% public supported)
4. British pulled their troops out of Greece
- He saw no military threat in Greece
- communist guerillas would have taken over without US action (56% public supported)
Evaluate using the goals of US foreign policy as criteria - Was it the right decision?
1. US bypassed UN and was accused of being imperialist
2. Early version of the domino theory
3. US gave $400 million in military assistance to Greece and Turkey succeeded
4. This gained public and Congressional support for Containment no turning back
5. Hardened debate over German reunification and reparations
6. Turned back threat to the Mediterranean - permanent naval presence

B. Marshall Plan - 6/5/47 - Secretary of State - George Marshall

1. US had offered relief to prevent starvation immediately after WWII
- stagnation and mass starvation was a possibility
- Worldwide Depression could return
2. US offered economic aid to all of Europe to help them recover
- Knew the Communists would turn it down
- some satellites wanted to accept ordered not to - image
3. Purpose - improve standard of living in Western Europe so that it would not become communist
- USSR would be much more dangerous with W. European technology
4. $16-24 billion over 3 years (48-51) to 16 nations
- Congress was hesitant at first voted NO
- too expensive
EVENTS RELATED TO MARSHALL PLAN
- Soviets rigged elections in Hungary 8/31/47
- Czechoslovakia subverted - 2/48
  - 1. Both US and USSR withdrew 1945
  - 2. Elections in 1946 gave communists only 38%
  - 3. 2/25/48 President Benes resigned Jan Masaryk was assassinated 2 weeks later
- Convinced Congress to support Marshall Plan (up public support to 57%)
  - Encouraged economic unity which led to the Common Market - 1957
  - Stalin accused US of economic imperialism to control Western Europe
  - Communist support in Western Europe declined
- Marshall Tito exiled 1948 from the communist block for accepting Marshall Plan aid when the Soviets could not overthrow him
  - set an example others might follow - we ignored this
- German unification was delayed by USSR
  - 1. Original US plan was to turn Germany into an agricultural community
  - 2. Removal of industry to fulfill this plan was to be used as reparations to rebuild USSR
  - 3. Despair and poverty perfect for communist takeover
  - 4. US decided to build it up instead to oppose communism
    - we had to get Europe to accept this
  - 5. Let them have Marshall Plan aid

C. Berlin Blockade/Airlift - 6/28/48

Stalin tried to use Berlin as a bargaining lever to force unification of Germany
- which would have given him a chance to spread communism into W. Germany
- Blockade - cut road and rail traffic into W. Berlin to starve city and force us to abandon it
  - outnumbered us 10 to 1
  - located 60 to 100 mi. inside E. Germany
  - 1st test of containment
3. Lucius Clay wanted to invade and take Germany over
4. Airlift for almost a year was the solution
- made Soviets look awful starving children and women
- Operation Vittles - made us look like knights in shining armor - world press coverage

D. North Atlantic Treaty Organization - 7/49 - Dean Acheson

1. 12 nations - attack on one = attack on all (Western Europe)
2. D. D. Eisenhower was first in charge
3. Up until this point the US had relied on the Bomb and now discovered that it was not enough
4. Key questions
- cost ($1.5 billion initially)
- entangling alliances
- rearming the Germans
5. Cold War heated up

Warsaw Pact - (began 1948-49 unofficially) 1955 - Soviet response to NATO

VII. Cold War - Asia

A. Chinese Civil War - Mao Zedong vs. Chiang Kai-shek breaks out again

1. General George Marshall recommends aid to Chiang - myth that aid could have saved Chiang
- a. Truman refused to send combat troops
- b. would have been unpopular at home
- c. would have been too late
- d. would have threatened Europe
2. Mao wins Chiang escapes to (Formosa) Taiwan - 12/1949 - shifts balance of power in Asia
3. US blocked entry into UN antagonizing a country with the largest market in the world
4. US was prepared to abandon Chiang - then Korea
5. Republicans accused Truman of giving China away

B. Japan

1. US built up Japanese economy as counterweight to communism in Asia
- ending occupation in 1952
2. Helped them to further develop peaceful industry (i.e. autos etc.)
3. Showcase what free enterprise can do in Asia - success surprised even US
4. We provided protection out of fear of Japanese imperialism

C. Korean War

1. Controlled by Japan 1910-1945
2. 38th parallel - boundary at the end of WWII
- a. Douglas MacArthur - Supreme Allied Commander in the Pacific including S. Korea
- b. N. Korea was under Soviet influence
3. 1948 - 2 separate governments - UN could not unite
- a. S. Korea - Syngman Rhee - elected (dictatorship) recognized as the legal government by the UN
- b. Kim Il-Sung head of communist N. Korea (dictatorship)
- c. Both US and USSR withdrew their own troops after training and arming armies
- d. 1/12/50 The US announced that Korea was not in our defense perimeter - an invitation to invade
4. 6/25/50 N. Korea invaded with USSR support
- a. Stalin wanted to embarrass China
- b. Stalin wanted to warn Japan to stay neutral
5. UN Security Council voted to call for a cease fire and then a police action quickly - saved them
- a. USSR was boycotting because Communist China was not admitted to the UN
- b. Truman - police action - sent US troops to support the UN we made up most of the army
- c. 19 countries sent troops - trapped at Pusan 7/50
- d. Truman Doctrine extended to the Pacific including
  - Fr. Indochina ($60million - 1952)
  - Chiang
6. MacArthur -Inchon invasion 9/15/50 recaptured Seoul trapping much of the North Korean army
- a. US changed strategy and crossed 38th Parallel
  - public demanded quick and total victory
- b. Drove the rest to the Yalu River (Chinese border) - Oct. 25, 1950
- c. US ignored Chinese warning - thought they were bluffing
- d. 300,000 to 1,000,000 Chinese invaded driving MacArthur back to the 38th parallel
7. MacArthur proposed
- a. using the bomb on the Chinese
- b. blockading and invading China
- c. bringing in Chiang Kai-shek (unleash the tiger)
8. Truman decided to accept a stalemate - trench warfare for the next 2 yrs. at the 38th parallel
- a. Would the USSR get involved?
- b. Wouldn't it leave Europe vulnerable?
- c. High expense would weaken our buildup to defend Europe needed time to get more $
- d. Panmunjom talks propaganda for both sides
9. MacArthur questioned Truman and appealed directly to Congress and the American people
Refused to fight a limited war
- a. After a second chance (meeting on Wake Island) MacArthur was fired
  - came home to a heroes welcome - Sperry-Rand job
- b. Replacement - Matthew Ridgeway
10. War still going on when Truman left office
11. Armistice - Panmunjom - 7/27/53 - Truce no formal peace treaty
12. War was unpopular at home
13. US willing to fight to stop the spread of communism
14. US willing to fight a limited war without total victory

VIII. Cold War - Middle East / Third World

A. Iran Ultimatum 3/6/46

1. Soviet troops were there to protect lend-lease shipments
- were suppose to withdraw by the end of 1946 - they did not
- wanted guarantee of oil shipments
2. US threatened USSR and the UN publicized Soviet refusal to leave they left
3. This lacked public support at home - too much of a risk of war

B. Creation of Israel - 1948

1. Palestine - 5/14/48 - British gave to Jews reluctantly
2. US and USSR recognized immediately to prevent UN action
3. Arabs invaded - Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia
- defeated by Israel
- Palestine disappeared - Palestinian refugee problem created
- Arabs humiliated - will want revenge
- source of current Middle East problems with Israel
4. Ralph Bunche - UN truce 1949 - Noble Peace Prize
5. British withdrew 6/56

C. Point Four Program - 1/49

military, economic, and technical aid to 3rd world to prevent communism
$400 million - primarily LA

IX. Cold War - Containment at Home

A. Iron Curtain Speech - 3/15/46 - Winston Churchill - Fulton, Missouri

1. Described the invisible barrier separating East and West keeping us in the dark
2. Magazines, newspapers, books, movies, radio broadcasts and travel are restricted in this area
3. Pointed to broken promises of free elections made at Yalta by Stalin
4. Offended USSR who announced a military buildup to defend itself
- US balanced by refusing to share the bomb
- we had reduced the size of our army from 8 to 1 million yet outnumbered 20 to 1
5. Stirred up anti-Russian feeling in the US as we moved back towards isolation

B. Causes of the 2nd Red Scare

Loyalty Review Board
- Truman instituted 1947
- Loyalty Oaths in an attempt to catch communists in the government
- 3 million checked - 2000 resigned
- 212 fired as security risks
- none prosecuted as communist spies
House Un-American Activities Committee - 1947 - began investigations
- feared Communist infiltration of
  - labor unions
  - government
  - education
  - scientific research
  - the clergy
  - print, films - propaganda
- Ronald Reagan helped the investigations as head of the actor's union
- Blacklisting began
7/48 - 11 communists were accused of attempting to teach the violent overthrow of the govt.
- a. Smith Act 1940 - prohibited this
- b. Supreme Court upheld
Spy Cases
Whitaker Chambers one-time editor of Time confessed - 8/48
- a. accused Alger Hiss - 12/48 - of passing info to USSR
  - pumpkin - microfilm
  - statute of limitations expired - 1937-38 crimes
- b. Alger Hiss - 1/21/50 State Department employee convicted of perjury in his 2nd trial
  - not a very powerful figure, but had been at Yalta
- c. Nixon became nationally known communist fighter
Klaus Fuch - 2/2/50 - convicted of giving the A-bomb secrets to the Soviets.
- Although he was British we figured that if they were there they must be here.
- Result - created a fear of communist infiltration in which anything would be believed
Internal Security Act - 1950 - restricted Communist organizations
- later declared unconstitional
Nixon - McCarran proposed / Truman vetoed - overridden
Ethel and Julius Rosenberg - 3/51 tried - implicated by Fuchs as communists - executed 1953
- a. They admitted to giving info to Fuch a British scientist
  - however this was not against the law
  - Evidence indicates that the info was inconsequential
  - They admitted to being communists...not against the law
- b. Heightened McCarthy's appeal
  - despite questionable evidence and the fact that McCarthy was not involved

C. McCarthyism - a result of the Red Scare

1. Joseph McCarthy - Rep. Sen. Wisconsin
2. 2/9/50 Wheeling, W.Va. - women's club - tested - list of 205 (latter 57)
- communists in the State Department
- those who disputed him must be communists themselves
- he found evidence (fabricated) ie - Tydings - MD. 7/50
3. Witch Hunts started across the country - many innocent permanently injured
4. based on half-truths and lies - discovered no communists
- anyone who was not conservative risked persecution
5. Army - McCarthy Hearings
- McCarthy's downfall came when he accused the army of being run by commies
- feud started when the friend of an aid was assigned to the Korean front
- accused the army of intentionally losing the war
- Joseph Welch - lawyer demonstrated that McCarthy had fabricated the evidence
- Hearings were nationally televised...ruined McCarthy's popularity
- a. 1954 - condemned by the Senate
- b. lost influence died an alcoholic in 57

D. 1952 Election

By the 1952 election Truman foreign policy was under attack at home on the
grounds that Truman and the Democrats lacked the moral backbone to save Asia
because they were influenced by communism. Truman's administration was
then accused of minor acts of corruption adding to the loss of faith in the Democrats
Was there a real threat? What was Truman's responsibility?
Did this policy encourage democracy and freedom at home?

III. The Cold War

(term used in 1947, but it began even before WWII ended!)

B. Stopping Soviet Aggression

1. At first US used UN as a vehicle to thwart Soviet actions
a. 1946 - Iranian Crisis
1) Allies agree to w/d troops within 6 months after war
2) Nov, 1945 - USSR initiated a revolt over
Azerbaijan (wanted oil concessions)
3) Jan - Iran protested to UN (it urged them to settle it)
4) Mar - w/d deadline passed, Soviets still had troops
5) US protested to UN, world opinion went against
Soviets
6) May - Soviets w/d troops (however, it got autonomy
for Azerbaijan and oil concessions); we convinced Iran to take back the oil concessions which led to Soviet
resentment!
7) Lesson - take a firm stand, Soviets will back down!
b. 1946 - Atomic Energy Question
1) US proposed an international commission be created
to control atomic power, with a veto exemption on
nuclear issues; Soviets rejected it!
2) Soviets proposed a ban on manufacture and use of
atomic weapons; refused to surrender veto on nuclear
matters (US had proposed a simple majority)
3) US refused to surrender its monopoly; neither
US nor USSR trusted the other!
4) Stalemate! Could not find "common ground"; would
this demonstrate a weakness with the UN?
5) We passed the Atomic Energy Act
-created the Atomic Energy Commission (civilians)
to oversee "peaceful" use of the atom
-only Pres. can authorize use of atomic bomb!
c. Soviets also withdrew their troops from Manchuria
(after stripping industries built by Japanese)
d. However, our real concern was not yet the ME nor Asia;
it was Europe!
1) Soviets had installed a Soviet regime in Poland
2) Beginning to install "satellites" in E. Europe
3) Why?
2. We needed to know about what was happening behind the
"iron curtain"; how to best deal with Soviet aggression!
3. Feb 22, 1946 - State Dept asked its Moscow delegation to
report on Soviet behavior
a. George Kennan (spent 5 years there) sent the
"long telegram" (8000 word response)
b. Behavior was due to mistrust of West; their insecurity
(several attacks from West);
WWII losses (20m dead, 25% industry destroyed)
c. Soviets wanted "hegemony" in central Europe (buffer)
d. Soviets had no real timetable for world conquest
e. Kennan would serve as the intellectual source of
subsequent US foreign policy, but our policy would evolve
rather slowly, reacting to Soviet actions
f. George Kennan - July, 1947 (Foreign Affairs article,
"The Sources of Soviet Conduct") advocated a long-term,
patient, but firm and vigilant "containment" based on the use of counter-force as the best means of stopping the spread of communism
1) Containment Policy
-assumed that collective force at Russia's perimeters would convince Russia to back down
(surely didn't want another war)
-must strengthen the non-communist world
(economically and militarily)
2) Where would we draw the line to stop the Communist menace?
3) What "weapons" would we use to fight the "cold war"? (diplomacy, scientific and economic competition, espionage, propaganda, world opinion, threats, other)
g. In 1947, Congress passed the National Defense Act to reorganize our military establishment
1) Created Department of Defense, with Cabinet Secretary
2) Created Joint Chiefs of Staff
3) National Security Council also created
4) As was the CIA, to gather intelligence
h. Where would containment first be tested? It would be in the Mediterranean!
4. Greece and Turkey
a. After WWII, Soviets putting pressure on Turkey for access to the Dardanelles (warm water port); US ambassador, Edwin Wilson warned that Turks could not withstand much pressure!
b. Simultaneously, civil war between Br-backed Greeks and Soviet-backed rebels in Greece (getting aid from Josip Tito in Yugoslavia) (because it was a civil war, UN could not interfere); Fev, 194
7 - British told US that they could no longer afford to back the Greek government! Greeks could not afford to pay back a loan
c. What would the US do?
d. Sec of State Dean Acheson warned that the fall of Greece and Turkey might open 3 continents to Soviet penetration!
e. How could we respond without appearing overly aggressive; creating an isolationist backlash? Remember, the world is watching/evaluating the Cold War development!
5. Truman Doctrine
a. Advisors told Truman "to scare hell" out of Am. people, and appeal to our morality
b. Mar 12, 1947 - Truman asked Congress for aid
1) Would have to choose between freedom and tyranny
2) "It must be the policy of the US to support 'free people' who are resisting attempted subjugation from outside pressures"
c. Asked for $400 million in mil and eco aid for Greece and Turkey
d. Congress passed the Greek-Turkish Aid Act (by 1950, US spent $659 million); we sent civilian and military personnel to supervise our aid
e. Truman was criticized for bypassing the UN (could have funneled money through it, perhaps)
f. Turkey achieved economic stability, Greece defeated the Communist rebels (Tito w/d support when he split with Stalin over "different roads to socialism"
g. Impact?
1) Strain on our resources and resolve
2) Antagonized Soviets (further tension)
3) It would become the "model" for much of the Cold War foreign policy...with worldwide implications
4) Still, it was much cheaper than war!
6. Western Europe
a. Although the Truman Doctrine was a response to a specific crisis, it heralded the birth of a broad policy of resistance to Soviet expansion
b. W. Europe was seeing a growing communist faction, due to so much devastation; Europe could produce practically nothing, nor buy anything (US could produce, couldn't sell), we needed Europe a
s a bastion against communism and as a trading partner
c. US worked through World Bank ($2.5b in loans), wiped out wartime loans, still not enough to recover Europe (harsh winters)
d. Spring 1947 - Churchill described Europe as a "rubble heap", a "breeding ground for pestilence and hate"; such conditions fostered the growth of communism; US had to help, but how?
e. Communists making big gains in Italy and France
f. Kennan suggested a broad aid program, free of ideological overtones, to be offered to any country in need to help it recover from the war's devastation
g. June 5, 1947 - Sec of State, George Marshall outlined the European Recovery Program (ERP), aka the "Marshall Plan"; "Our policy is directed not against country or doctrine, but against hunger, desperation, and chaos"
1) Told war-torn to submit a bill for its needs!
2) 16 European nations formed the Committee of European Economic Cooperation, submitted a plan calling for some $22b in US aid!
3) US even offered aid to Soviets (refused)
4) Set off a storm of debate at home; during the debate
-Soviets offered aid to its satellites, to be used against US imperialism
-Apr, 1947 - Soviets helped rid Hungary of anticommunists in its gov't
-Feb, 1948 - Czechoslovakia coup unseated Edward Benes; when Jan Masaryk "fell from a window", all resistance to the communist coup ended!
5) Apr 3, 1948 Congress passed the Economic Cooperation Act (Marshall Plan); appropriated $13 billion
6) By 1951, West Europe was booming! Trade between US and Europe increased some 25%
7) The threat of communist coups in Western Europe was ended!
8) Precedent?
9) It increased tensions between US and USSR!
7. What other means would we use to stop communism? How far would we go?

IV. The Further Containment of Communism

A. By 1948, Truman had announced his "doctrine", began using it in Greece and Turkey, Congress passed the Marshall Plan; in 1948, we would have to use more than money! Remember, it was also an election year!
B. Before, however, as a sidenote, a major development in the Middle East - Zionism; in May 1948, Israel announced its independence

C. The Berlin Crisis - threatened to turn the Cold War hot!

1. At Yalta, the decision to divide Germany was made
a. Allies wanted to make Germany powerless, so it could not again do what it did!
b. Rout Germany of Nazism (Nuremburg Trials)
c. Reparations "in-kind" could be taken from zones of occupation
d. Soviets took much ind. equipment, farm goods, even laborers
2. By June, 1948
a. Soviets had established a communist gov't in their sector
b. US, GB, Fr formed "Trizonia", announced plans to convene a constitutional assembly to establish a dem. re. for West Germany, began currency reform and rebuilding Germany's economy so it could "stand alone"!
c. USSR could not allow it!
3. Soviets responded with a "blockade" of all surface routes into Berlin (hoped to force allies out of Berlin) on June 24, 1948
a. Allies had to use force or abandon reunification plans
b. How could we avoid the use of force, and still feed the millions in West Berlin?
c. US Commander, Lucius Clay wanted to ram through (Soviets had 10 to 1 edge)
4. Decided upon an "airlift" (Operation Vittles)
a. 321 days; 270,000 flights (plane took off every 3 minutes!); $200m cost; 2.5m tons of cargo dropped for the 2m Berliners
b. Made Russian look bad, starving out women/kids
Russians couldn't afford to shoot down our planes
c. May 12, 1949 - Soviets lifted the blockade; Berlin would remain a "trouble spot" in the future
d. In May, Germany was divided - West (Bonn) and East (Berlin); reunification in 1990
5. During the crisis, several things happened
a. US sent B-29s to GB
b. CIA trained agents sent to Germany and even Russia
c. Tito broke with Stalin
d. Collective security scheme developed
1) In Mar, 1948 Brussels Pact (GB, FR, and Benelux countries) signed, creating a defensive alliance
2) From that idea, sprang the idea for a larger organization
3) Apr, 1949, North Atlantic Treaty Organization signed (ratified in July, 82-13)
-an "entangling alliance", an attack on one, an attack on all!
-12 original members (US, Canada, Iceland and several Western European nations)
4) In Oct, 1949 (after we learned that the Soviets had the bomb), Congress appropriated $1.5b to arm NATO
-Eisenhower recalled to active duty to command it
-Sent two divisions to Europe
5) In 1955, USSR countered with the Warsaw Pact (disbanded Mar 31, 1991)
e. Should the US still protect Western Europe?

D. Truman's Second Term

1. In his inaugural address, Truman announced a broad foreign policy plan, based on four points
a. The United Nations
b. The Marshall Plan
c. NATO
d. Point Four - a plan for giving technical and economic aid to developing nations all over the world to make them less susceptible to communism

E. Containment in Asia

1. In Europe, containment worked well, in Asia it was more expensive and less effective
2. V-J Day found Asia in shambles! Communists poised all over!
a. China
1) US hoped to see Chiang Kai-shek win over Mao Tse-tung
2) By 1947, full-scale civil war again
3) We decided we could not save Chiang
4) Hoped Chiang would agree to "share" power with Mao
5) Oct, 1949 - Mao formed the Peoples' Republic of China; in Dec, Chiang fled to Formosa (Taiwan)
6) Jan, 1950, USSR and PRC signed a 30 year mutual aid treaty
7) All we could do was block Red China's entry into the UN
b. We stepped up aid to "friendly" nations in Asia (Formosa, Vietnam, Philippines, Korea, Japan)
c. Japan
1) Truman decided not to allow Soviets any say in reconstruction
2) US troops under MacArthur, who ran the country
3) 1951 - treaty with Japan
-ended occupation, but got right to a base in Okinawa and reserved the right to station in Japan if needed
-in 1956 - Japan joined UN
4) Today we still have 50,000 troops in Japan
3. As China was falling, we learned that the Soviets had developed an atomic bomb (Sep. 1949); the whole complexion of the Cold War changed!
a. Truman ordered the building of the hydrogen bomb; big debate over whether or not to do it!
b. 9 months later, Soviets had the H-bomb
c. NSC # 68 - advocated a large-scale military buildup; we would become the world's "policemen" (committed us to become a military nation)
4. Korean War
a. At the end of WWII, Korea divided at 38th parallel; US and Soviet forced in Korea after Japan surrendered
b. By 1948, separate regimes established
1) Democratic Peoples' Republic of Korea - North under Kim Il Sung
2) Republic of Korea - South under Syngman Rhee
3) Both wanted to reunite N and S -by force
4) Border skirmishes began
c. Jan, 1949 US announced that Korea was not a part of our "defense perimeter"; w/d equipment, troops (Soviets didn't remove equipment)
d. June 25, 1950 - N Korea invaded S Korea!
1) Truman called a special meeting of the UN Security Council (Soviets boycotted because of Red China); called for an end to hostilities and w/d of NK troops from SK; NK ignored it!
2) June 27 - Un called for assistance in repelling aggression (a "police action")
-17 nations sent volunteers
-MacArthur put in charge of UN Army
e. Stopping Aggression
1) By Sep, a perimeter around Pusan all that was left of South Korea
2) Sep 15 - MacArthur executed an amphibious invasion at Inchon, port city to Seoul
3) By Oct, enemy pushed back across the 38th parallel
4) What now?
-Truman, with UN approval, allowed MacArthur to drive northward (to Yalu River, border between NK and China)
-China warned they would not tolerate such imperialistic ventures
-Truman met MacArthur at Wake Island (Oct 15) and assured that China wouldn't interfere
5) Nov 26 - 300,000 Chinese "volunteers" crossed the Yalu, pushed the UN army back across the 38th parallel
6) By spring, stalemate - turn to trench warfare
-MacArthur asked for permission to bomb China; called for a "general war", blockade of China's coast, use Chiang's army to invade the mainland
-Truman reminded him it's a "limited war" (MacArthur was opposed to "Limited War")
-MacArthur appealed to Congress, public
-Apr 11, 1951, Truman fired him (insubordination), made Truman look indecisive and incompetent
7) MacArthur replaced with Gen. Matthew Ridgway
8) June 24, 1951 - Soviets proposed a cease-fire and peace talks
9) Became an election issue in '52 (Eisenhower promised to "go to Korea")
10) July 27, 1953 - treaty signed
-truce line drawn at the 38th parallel
-4 km demilitarized zone
-troops withdrawal
-no final peace, still divided
11) Results
-US - 140,000 casualties (22,500 dead)
-SK - 1 m casualties
-NK and Red China - 1.5 m casualties
-cost $22 b ($18b for US)
-Strengthened Moscow-Peking axis!
-set off a debate on the merits of containment
-did it avoid WWIII or was it "peace w/o victory"?
-shift from concept of "total" to "limited" war
-communists shifted to pressuring Indochina!

VI. Evaluation of Containment

Evaluation of Truman's Policy
Program Criteria Grade Why
1. Containment 1. Goals?
2. Truman Doctrine 2. Effects? (+ & -)
3. Marshall Plan 3. Expense ($ & lives)
4. Berlin Airlift 4. Image?
5. NATO
6. Point Four
7. NSC # 68
8. Korean War

V. Truman's Legacy

A. 1952 - Truman decided not to run for reelection
- 1. Charges of corruption in Dem Party
- 2. "Soft" on communism at home
- 3. In another costly war...in Korea (?)
B. Where does Truman stand?
- 1. He did right on big things, wrong on little ones
- 2. Guided us through demobilization without a depression
- 3. Stood up to Communist aggression
- 4. Couldn't sway Congress on domestic programs
- 5. In the 60's, a poll of historians ranked him as one on the "near greats"
- 6. As Truman said, "I done my damnedest"